Which Of The Following Describes Computer Animation?

Art of creating moving images using computers

An case of computer animation which is produced from the "movement capture" technique

Computer animation is the procedure used for digitally generating animated images. The more full general term reckoner-generated imagery (CGI) encompasses both static scenes and dynamic images, while computer blitheness simply refers to moving images. Modern computer animation commonly uses 3D figurer graphics to generate a iii-dimensional picture. Sometimes, the target of the animation is the reckoner itself, merely sometimes film as well.

Computer blitheness is substantially a digital successor to stop motion techniques, just using 3D models, and traditional animation techniques using frame-by-frame animation of 2D illustrations. Reckoner-generated animations tin can as well let a unmarried graphic creative person to produce such content without the use of actors, expensive set pieces, or props. To create the illusion of movement, an paradigm is displayed on the figurer monitor and repeatedly replaced past a new image that is like to it only advanced slightly in time (usually at a rate of 24, 25, or xxx frames/second). This technique is identical to how the illusion of movement is achieved with television set and move pictures.

For 3D animations, objects (models) are built on the computer monitor (modeled) and 3D figures are rigged with a virtual skeleton. Then the limbs, optics, mouth, apparel, etc. of the figure are moved by the animator on key frames. The differences in appearance betwixt key frames are automatically calculated by the estimator in a process known as tweening or morphing. Finally, the animation is rendered.^[1]

For 3D animations, all frames must exist rendered later the modeling is complete. For pre-recorded presentations, the rendered frames are transferred to a different format or medium, like digital video. The frames may likewise exist rendered in real time every bit they are presented to the end-user audience. Low bandwidth animations transmitted via the internet (e.grand. Adobe Flash, X3D) often utilise software on the end-user's calculator to return in real time as an alternative to streaming or pre-loaded high bandwidth animations.

Explanation [edit]

To play a trick on the eye and the encephalon into thinking they are seeing a smoothly moving object, the pictures should exist fatigued at around 12 frames per 2nd or faster.^[two] (A frame is one complete image.) With rates to a higher place 75-120 frames per second, no comeback in realism or smoothness is perceivable due to the style the eye and the encephalon both procedure images. At rates below 12 frames per second, most people can notice jerkiness associated with the drawing of new images that detracts from the illusion of realistic movement.^[iii] Conventional hand-drawn drawing animation often uses xv frames per second in order to save on the number of drawings needed, but this is usually accepted considering of the stylized nature of cartoons. To produce more realistic imagery, computer animation demands higher frame rates.

Films seen in theaters in the U.s.a. run at 24 frames per second, which is sufficient to create the illusion of continuous movement. For loftier resolution, adapters are used.

History [edit]

Early digital reckoner animation was developed at Bell Telephone Laboratories in the 1960s by Edward Eastward. Zajac, Frank W. Sinden, Kenneth C. Knowlton, and A. Michael Noll.^[four] Other digital animation was likewise adept at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.^[5]

In 1967, a estimator blitheness named "Hummingbird" was created by Charles Csuri and James Shaffer.^[6] In 1968, a estimator animation called "Kitty" was created with BESM-4 past Nikolai Konstantinov, depicting a cat moving around.^[7] In 1971, a computer animation called "Metadata" was created, showing various shapes.^[8]

An early step in the history of figurer animation was the sequel to the 1973 film Westworld, a science-fiction flick almost a society in which robots live and work amid humans.^[9] The sequel, Futureworld (1976), used the 3D wire-frame imagery, which featured a computer-blithe manus and face both created by University of Utah graduates Edwin Catmull and Fred Parke.^[10] This imagery originally appeared in their student film A Computer Animated Hand, which they completed in 1972.^{[11] [12]}

Developments in CGI technologies are reported each year at SIGGRAPH,^[13] an annual conference on reckoner graphics and interactive techniques that is attended by thousands of estimator professionals each yr.^[14] Developers of computer games and 3D video cards strive to achieve the same visual quality on personal computers in real-time every bit is possible for CGI films and blitheness. With the rapid advancement of real-time rendering quality, artists began to use game engines to render non-interactive movies, which led to the art course Machinima.

Film and television set [edit]

"Spring", a 3D animated brusque film made using Blender

CGI short films take been produced as independent animation since 1976.^[15] Early on examples of feature films incorporating CGI blitheness include the live-action films Star Expedition II: The Wrath of Khan and Tron (both 1982),^[xvi] and the Japanese anime film Golgo 13: The Professional (1983).^[17] VeggieTales is the showtime American fully 3D computer animated series sold directly (fabricated in 1993); its success inspired other animation series, such as ReBoot (1994) and Transformers: Animal Wars (1996) to adopt a fully calculator-generated style.

The first full length reckoner animated boob tube series was ReBoot,^[18] which debuted in September 1994; the series followed the adventures of characters who lived inside a calculator.^[19] The first feature-length estimator animated flick is Toy Story (1995), which was made by Disney and Pixar:^{[20] [21] [22]} following an take a chance centered effectually anthropomorphic toys and their owners, this groundbreaking film was also the outset of many fully computer-blithe movies.^[21]

The popularity of computer animation (especially in the field of special effects) skyrocketed during the modern era of U.South. animation.^[23] Films similar Avatar (2009) and The Jungle Book (2016) use CGI for the majority of the picture runtime, but still incorporate human actors into the mix.^[24] Computer animation in this era has achieved photorealism, to the betoken that figurer animated films such as The Lion King (2019) are able to be marketed equally if they were live-action.^{[25] [26]}

Animation methods [edit]

In most 3D calculator animation systems, an animator creates a simplified representation of a character'southward anatomy, which is analogous to a skeleton or stick figure.^[27] They are arranged into a default position known every bit a demark pose, or T-Pose. The position of each segment of the skeletal model is defined by animation variables, or Avars for short. In human and brute characters, many parts of the skeletal model correspond to the actual bones, but skeletal animation is besides used to animate other things, with facial features (though other methods for facial blitheness exist).^[28] The character "Woody" in Toy Story, for example, uses 712 Avars (212 in the face alone). The computer doesn't commonly return the skeletal model direct (it is invisible), but it does use the skeletal model to compute the exact position and orientation of that certain character, which is somewhen rendered into an image. Thus by changing the values of Avars over time, the animator creates motion by making the grapheme move from frame to frame.

There are several methods for generating the Avar values to obtain realistic motion. Traditionally, animators manipulate the Avars direct.^[29] Rather than set Avars for every frame, they usually prepare Avars at strategic points (frames) in fourth dimension and let the computer interpolate or tween betwixt them in a procedure called keyframing. Keyframing puts command in the hands of the animator and has roots in hand-fatigued traditional blitheness.^[30]

In dissimilarity, a newer method called motion capture makes use of live action footage.^[31] When computer blitheness is driven past move capture, a real performer acts out the scene every bit if they were the character to be animated.^[32] Their motion is recorded to a figurer using video cameras and markers and that performance is and so practical to the blithe character.^[33]

Each method has its advantages and every bit of 2007, games and films are using either or both of these methods in productions. Keyframe animation can produce motions that would be hard or impossible to act out, while motion capture can reproduce the subtleties of a particular role player.^[34] For example, in the 2006 film Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Human's Chest, Bill Nighy provided the performance for the graphic symbol Davy Jones. Fifty-fifty though Nighy doesn't appear in the movie himself, the moving picture benefited from his performance by recording the nuances of his body language, posture, facial expressions, etc. Thus motion capture is advisable in situations where believable, realistic behavior and activity is required, simply the types of characters required exceed what can be done throughout the conventional costuming.

Modeling [edit]

3D computer animation combines 3D models of objects and programmed or hand "keyframed" move. These models are constructed out of geometrical vertices, faces, and edges in a 3D coordinate system. Objects are sculpted much similar real clay or plaster, working from general forms to specific details with various sculpting tools. Unless a 3D model is intended to exist a solid color, information technology must be painted with "textures" for realism. A os/joint animation organisation is set up to deform the CGI model (e.m., to make a humanoid model walk). In a procedure known as rigging, the virtual marionette is given various controllers and handles for controlling motility.^[35] Animation information can exist created using motility capture, or keyframing past a human animator, or a combination of the two.^[36]

3D models rigged for animation may contain thousands of command points — for case, "Woody" from Toy Story uses 700 specialized animation controllers. Rhythm and Hues Studios labored for two years to create Aslan in the pic The Chronicles of Narnia: The Panthera leo, the Witch and the Wardrobe, which had about 1,851 controllers (742 in the face alone). In the 2004 motion picture The 24-hour interval After Tomorrow, designers had to design forces of extreme weather with the help of video references and accurate meteorological facts. For the 2005 remake of King Kong, player Andy Serkis was used to help designers pinpoint the gorilla's prime number location in the shots and used his expressions to model "human" characteristics onto the fauna. Serkis had before provided the vocalisation and operation for Gollum in J. R. R. Tolkien'due south The Lord of the Rings trilogy.

Equipment [edit]

A ray-traced 3-D model of a jack inside a cube, and the jack alone below.

Computer blitheness can be created with a computer and an animation software. Some impressive animation can be achieved even with basic programs; nonetheless, the rendering can require much fourth dimension on an ordinary dwelling computer.^[37] Professional animators of movies, idiot box and video games could brand photorealistic animation with high item. This level of quality for movie blitheness would have hundreds of years to create on a habitation reckoner. Instead, many powerful workstation computers are used.^[38] Graphics workstation computers utilize two to four processors, and they are a lot more powerful than an actual abode calculator and are specialized for rendering. Many workstations (known as a "return subcontract") are networked together to effectively act as a giant computer,^[39] resulting in a estimator-blithe movie that can be completed in well-nigh ane to five years (however, this process is not equanimous solely of rendering). A workstation typically costs $2,000-16,000 with the more than expensive stations being able to return much faster due to the more than technologically-advanced hardware that they contain. Professionals as well utilise digital movie cameras, movement/performance capture, bluescreens, movie editing software, props, and other tools used for movie animation. Programs similar Blender allow for people who tin't afford expensive animation and rendering software to be able to work in a similar style to those who apply the commercial grade equipment.^[forty]

Facial blitheness [edit]

The realistic modeling of human facial features is both i of the about challenging and sought afterward elements in computer-generated imagery. Computer facial animation is a highly complex field where models typically include a very large number of animation variables.^[41] Historically speaking, the first SIGGRAPH tutorials on State of the art in Facial Animation in 1989 and 1990 proved to be a turning bespeak in the field past bringing together and consolidating multiple research elements and sparked interest among a number of researchers.^[42]

The Facial Action Coding System (with 46 "activeness units", "lip bite" or "squint"), which had been developed in 1976, became a pop basis for many systems.^[43] As early as 2001, MPEG-4 included 68 Confront Animation Parameters (FAPs) for lips, jaws, etc., and the field has made significant progress since then and the use of facial microexpression has increased.^{[43] [44]}

In some cases, an affective space, the PAD emotional state model, can exist used to assign specific emotions to the faces of avatars.^[45] In this approach, the PAD model is used as a high level emotional space and the lower level space is the MPEG-four Facial Animation Parameters (FAP). A mid-level Partial Expression Parameters (PEP) space is then used to in a two-level structure – the PAD-PEP mapping and the PEP-FAP translation model.^[46]

Realism [edit]

Joy & Heron - A typical example of realistic animation

Realism in computer blitheness can mean making each frame expect photorealistic, in the sense that the scene is rendered to resemble a photo or make the characters' animation believable and lifelike.^[47] Computer blitheness can also be realistic with or without the photorealistic rendering.^[48]

One of the greatest challenges in computer animation has been creating human characters that look and move with the highest degree of realism. Part of the difficulty in making pleasing, realistic human characters is the uncanny valley, the concept where the man audience (upward to a indicate) tends to have an increasingly negative, emotional response as a human replica looks and acts more and more human being. Films that accept attempted photorealistic human characters, such equally The Polar Express,^{[49] [50] [51]} Beowulf,^[52] and A Christmas Carol ^{[53] [54]} take been criticized equally "disconcerting" and "creepy".

The goal of computer animation is non ever to emulate live activity equally closely as possible, so many animated films instead feature characters who are anthropomorphic animals, legendary creatures and characters, superheroes, or otherwise accept non-realistic, cartoon-like proportions.^[55] Computer animation tin can also be tailored to mimic or substitute for other kinds of animation, similar traditional stop-movement animation (as shown in Flushed Away or The Peanuts Movie). Some of the long-standing bones principles of animation, similar squash & stretch, telephone call for motion that is not strictly realistic, and such principles still see widespread awarding in computer animation.^[56]

Animation studios [edit]

Some notable producers of computer-animated feature films include:

• Animal Logic – Films include Happy Feet (2006), Legend of the Guardians: The Owls of Ga'Hoole (2010), Walking with Dinosaurs (2013), The Lego Moving-picture show (2014)
• Aardman Animations  – Films include Flushed Abroad (2006), Arthur Christmas (2011)
• Big Thought Entertainment – Jonah: A VeggieTales Movie (2002) and The Pirates Who Don't Practice Annihilation: A VeggieTales Movie (2008)
• Bron Studios – Films include The Addams Family unit (2019), The Willoughbys (2020)
• Blueish Sky Studios – Films include Ice Age (2002), Robots (2005), Horton Hears a Who! (2008), Rio (2011), Epic (2013), The Peanuts Movie (2015)
• DNA Productions  – Films include Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius (2001), Santa vs. the Snowman 3D (2002) and The Ant Dandy (2006)
• DNEG  - Films includes Ron'due south Gone Wrong (2021)
• DreamWorks Animation – Films include Shrek (2001), Shark Tale (2004), Madagascar (2005), Over the Hedge (2006), Bee Motion picture (2007), Kung Fu Panda (2008), Monsters vs. Aliens (2009), How to Railroad train Your Dragon (2010), Rising of the Guardians (2012), The Croods (2013), Trolls (2016), The Dominate Baby (2017)
• ImageMovers  – Films include The Polar Express (2004), Monster House (2006), Beowulf (2007), A Christmas Carol (2009), Mars Needs Moms (2011)
• Ilion Blitheness Studios — Films include Planet 51 (2009), Mortadelo and Filemon: Mission Implausible (2014) Wonder Park (2019)
• Illumination — Films include Despicable Me (2010), The Lorax (2012), Minions (2015), The Secret Life of Pets (2016), Sing (2016), The Grinch (2018), The Hush-hush Life of Pets 2 (2019)
• Industrial Lite & Magic – Films include Rango (2011) and Strange Magic (2015)
• Pacific Data Images – Films include Antz (1998), Shrek (2001), Shrek 2 (2004), Madagascar (2005), Megamind (2010), Mr. Peabody and Sherman (2014)
• Paramount Animation – Films include The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of H2o (2015), Monster Trucks (2017), Sherlock Gnomes (2018), Wonder Park (2019), The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run (2020; 2021)
• Pixar Animation Studios – Films include Toy Story (1995), Monsters, Inc. (2001), Finding Nemo (2003), The Incredibles (2004), Cars (2006), Ratatouille (2007), WALL-E (2008), Up (2009), Brave (2012), Within Out (2015), Coco (2017), and Soul (2020)
• Rainmaker Studios – Films include Escape from Planet Earth (2013) and Ratchet & Clank (2016)
• Reel FX Animation Studios – Films include Free Birds (2013) and The Book of Life (2014)
• Wizart Animation – Films include The Snow Queen (2012), Sheep and Wolves (2016)
• Shirogumi – Films include Friends: Mononoke Shima no Naki (2011), Stand up by Me Doraemon (2014) and Dragon Quest: Your Story (2019)
• Square Pictures – Films include Final Fantasy: The Spirits Inside (2001)
• Sony Pictures Animation - Films include Hotel Transylvania (2012), Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse (2018), and The Mitchells vs. the Machines (2021)
• Sony Pictures Imageworks  – Films include The Aroused Birds Movie (2016) and Over the Moon (2020)
• Triggerfish Blitheness Studios – Films include Zambezia (2013), Khumba (2014)
• Vanguard Animation - Films include Valiant (2005), Space Chimps (2008)
• Walt Disney Animation Studios – Films include Bolt (2008), Tangled (2010), Wreck-It Ralph (2012), Frozen (2013), Big Hero 6 (2014), Zootopia (2016), Moana (2016) and Encanto (2021)
• Warner Animation Group – Films include The Lego Movie (2014), Storks (2016), The Lego Batman Movie (2017), Smallfoot (2018), Scoob! (2020)
• Weta Digital – Films include The Adventures of Tintin (2011) The Pawpatrol Film (2021) Frozen 2 (2019)

Spider web animations [edit]

The popularity of websites that allow members to upload their own movies for others to view has created a growing customs of independent and amateur figurer animators.^[57] With utilities and programs ofttimes included gratis with mod operating systems, many users can make their own animated movies and shorts. Several free and open-source animation software applications exist also. The ease at which these animations can be distributed has attracted professional blitheness talent also. Companies such as PowToon and Vyond attempt to bridge the gap past giving amateurs admission to professional animations as clip art.

The oldest (well-nigh backward uniform) spider web-based animations are in the animated GIF format, which can exist uploaded and seen on the web easily.^[58] However, the raster graphics format of GIF animations slows the download and frame rate, especially with larger screen sizes. The growing need for higher quality web-based animations was met past a vector graphics alternative that relied on the use of a plugin. For decades, Flash animations were the most popular format, until the web development customs abandoned support for the Wink Player plugin. Spider web browsers on mobile devices and mobile operating systems never fully supported the Flash plugin.

By this time, internet bandwidth and download speeds increased, making raster graphic animations more convenient. Some of the more circuitous vector graphic animations had a slower frame rate due to complex rendering compared to some of the raster graphic alternatives. Many of the GIF and Wink animations were already converted to digital video formats, which were compatible with mobile devices and reduced file sizes via video compression engineering science. Nevertheless, compatibility was nonetheless problematic as some of the popular video formats such as Apple tree'southward QuickTime and Microsoft Silverlight required plugins. YouTube, the most popular video sharing website, was also relying on the Wink plugin to evangelize digital video in the Flash Video format.

The latest alternatives are HTML5 compatible animations. Technologies such as JavaScript and CSS animations fabricated sequencing the motility of images in HTML5 web pages more convenient. SVG animations offered a vector graphic alternative to the original Flash graphic format, SmartSketch. YouTube offers an HTML5 alternative for digital video. APNG (Animated PNG) offered a raster graphic alternative to blithe GIF files that enables multi-level transparency not bachelor in GIFs.

Detailed examples [edit]

Computer animation uses different techniques to produce animations. Well-nigh often, sophisticated mathematics is used to dispense circuitous three-dimensional polygons, apply "textures", lighting and other effects to the polygons and finally rendering the complete image. A sophisticated graphical user interface may be used to create the animation and accommodate its choreography. Another technique called constructive solid geometry defines objects by conducting boolean operations on regular shapes, and has the reward that animations may be accurately produced at any resolution.

Calculator-generated animation [edit]

To animate means, figuratively, to "give life to". At that place are ii basic methods that animators normally employ to accomplish this.

Computer-generated blitheness is known every bit three-dimensional (3D) animation. Creators blueprint an object or character with an Ten, a Y and a Z axis. No pencil-to-newspaper drawings create the fashion calculator-generated animation works. The object or graphic symbol created volition then be taken into a software. Key-framing and tweening are as well carried out in computer-generated animation but then are many techniques unrelated to traditional animation. Animators can break physical laws past using mathematical algorithms to cheat mass, force and gravity rulings. Fundamentally, time calibration and quality could be said to exist a preferred way to produce animation as they are major aspects enhanced by using calculator-generated animation. Another positive aspect of CGA is the fact one can create a flock of creatures to human activity independently when created as a grouping. An brute's fur tin can be programmed to wave in the wind and lie apartment when it rains instead of separately programming each strand of hair.^[59]

A few examples of computer-generated blitheness movies are Toy Story, Antz, Ice Age, Happy Feet, Despicable Me, Frozen, and Shrek.

2d Computer Animation [edit]

2D reckoner graphics are still used for stylistic, low bandwidth, and faster existent-time renderings.

Reckoner blitheness is essentially a digital successor to finish motility techniques, but using 3D models, and traditional animation techniques using frame-past-frame animation of 2nd illustrations

For 2D figure animations, separate objects (illustrations) and separate transparent layers are used with or without that virtual skeleton.

2d sprites and pseudocode [edit]

In 2D computer animation, moving objects are often referred to as "sprites." A sprite is an image that has a location associated with it. The location of the sprite is changed slightly, between each displayed frame, to make the sprite announced to move.^[sixty] The following pseudocode makes a sprite move from left to right:

          var          int          x := 0, y := screenHeight / two;          while          x < screenWidth drawBackground() drawSpriteAtXY (x, y)          // draw on top of the background          x := x + v          // move to the right        

Computer-assisted animation [edit]

Computer-assisted animation is usually classed equally two-dimensional (second) blitheness. Drawings are either hand drawn (pencil to paper) or interactively drawn (on the computer) using different profitable appliances and are positioned into specific software packages. Within the software package, the creator places drawings into different fundamental frames which fundamentally create an outline of the most important movements.^[61] The estimator then fills in the "in-between frames", a process unremarkably known equally Tweening.^[62] Computer-assisted blitheness employs new technologies to produce content faster than is possible with traditional animation, while still retaining the stylistic elements of traditionally fatigued characters or objects.^[59]

Examples of films produced using calculator-assisted animation are The Little Mermaid, The Rescuers Down Under, Beauty and the Fauna, Aladdin, The Lion Male monarch, Pocahontas, The Hunchback of Notre Dame, Hercules, Mulan, The Road to El Dorado and Tarzan.

See also [edit]

• Animation
• Animation database
• Autodesk
• Avar (animation variable)
• Computer-generated imagery (CGI)
• New York Constitute of Engineering Reckoner Graphics Lab
• Computer representation of surfaces
• Hand-Over
• Humanoid animation
• Listing of animation studios
• List of computer-animated films
• Listing of estimator-blithe television receiver serial
• Medical animation
• Morph target animation
• Machinima (recording video from games and virtual worlds)
• Move capture
• Procedural animation
• Ray tracing
• Rich Representation Language
• Skeletal animation
• Timeline of computer blitheness in moving picture and television receiver
• Virtual antiquity
• Wire-frame model
• Twelve basic principles of animation

References [edit]

Citations [edit]

1. ^ Sito 2013, p. 232.
2. ^ Masson 1999, p. 148.
3. ^ Parent 2012, pp. 100–101, 255.
4. ^ Masson 1999, pp. 390–394.
5. ^ Sito 2013, pp. 69–75.
6. ^ "Charles Csuri, Fragmentation Animations, 1967 - 1970: Hummingbird (1967)". YouTube.
7. ^ ""Kitten" 1968 computer blitheness". YouTube.
8. ^ "Metadata 1971". YouTube.
9. ^ Masson 1999, p. 404.
10. ^ Masson 1999, pp. 282–288.
11. ^ Sito 2013, p. 64.
12. ^ Means 2011.
13. ^ Sito 2013, pp. 97–98.
14. ^ Sito 2013, pp. 95–97.
15. ^ Masson 1999, p. 58.
16. ^ "The Making of Tron". Video Games Player. Vol. 1, no. 1. Carnegie Publications. September 1982. pp. 50–5.
17. ^ Beck, Jerry (2005). The Animated Moving picture Guide . Chicago Review Printing. p. 216. ISBN1569762228.
18. ^ Sito 2013, p. 188.
19. ^ Masson 1999, p. 430.
20. ^ Masson 1999, p. 432.
21. ^ ^{a b} Masson 1999, p. 302.
22. ^ "Our Story", Pixar, 1986-2013. Retrieved on 2013-02-15. "The Pixar Timeline, 1979 to Present". Pixar. Archived from the original on 2015-09-05.
23. ^ Masson 1999, p. 52.
24. ^ Thompson, Anne (2010-01-01). "How James Cameron'due south Innovative New 3D Tech Created Avatar". Popular Mechanics . Retrieved 2019-04-24 .
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26. ^ Rottenberg, Josh (July xix, 2019). "'The Lion King': Is information technology animated or alive-action? Information technology's complicated". Los Angeles Times . Retrieved December 13, 2021.
27. ^ Parent 2012, pp. 193–196.
28. ^ Parent 2012, pp. 324–326.
29. ^ Parent 2012, pp. 111–118.
30. ^ Sito 2013, p. 132.
31. ^ Masson 1999, p. 118.
32. ^ Masson 1999, pp. 94–98.
33. ^ Masson 1999, p. 226.
34. ^ Masson 1999, p. 204.
35. ^ Parent 2012, p. 289.
36. ^ Beane 2012, p. 2-15.
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39. ^ Sito 2013, p. 195.
40. ^ Foundation, Blender. "blender.org - Home of the Blender project - Costless and Open 3D Cosmos Software". blender.org . Retrieved 2019-04-24 .
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42. ^ Parke & Waters 2008, p. xi.
43. ^ ^{a b} Magnenat Thalmann & Thalmann 2004, p. 122.
44. ^ Pereira & Ebrahimi 2002, p. 404.
45. ^ Pereira & Ebrahimi 2002, pp. 60–61.
46. ^ Paiva, Prada & Picard 2007, pp. 24–33.
47. ^ Masson 1999, pp. 160–161.
48. ^ Parent 2012, pp. xiv–17.
49. ^ Zacharek, Stephanie (2004-11-10). "The Polar Express". Salon . Retrieved 2015-06-08 .
50. ^ Herman, Barbara (2013-ten-30). "The 10 Scariest Movies and Why They Creep U.s. Out". Newsweek . Retrieved 2015-06-08 .
51. ^ Clinton, Paul (2004-11-10). "Review: 'Polar Express' a creepy ride". CNN . Retrieved 2015-06-08 .
52. ^ Digital Actors in 'Beowulf' Are Simply Uncanny – New York Times, November 14, 2007
53. ^ Neumaier, Joe (November 5, 2009). "Blah, braggadocio! 'A Christmas Carol's iii-D spin on Dickens well washed in parts but lacks spirit". New York Daily News . Retrieved October 10, 2015.
54. ^ Williams, Mary Elizabeth (Nov 5, 2009). "Disney's 'A Christmas Carol': Bah, braggadocio!". Salon.com. Archived from the original on January eleven, 2010. Retrieved October 10, 2015.
55. ^ Sito 2013, p. vii.
56. ^ Sito 2013, p. 59.
57. ^ Sito 2013, pp. 82, 89.
58. ^ Kuperberg 2002, pp. 112–113.
59. ^ ^{a b} Roos, Dave (2013). "How Calculator Animation Works". HowStuffWorks. Retrieved 2013-02-fifteen .
60. ^ Masson 1999, p. 123.
61. ^ Masson 1999, p. 115.
62. ^ Masson 1999, p. 284.

Works cited [edit]

• Beane, Andy (2012). 3D Animation Essentials. Indianapolis, Indiana: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN978-1-118-14748-ane.
• Kuperberg, Marcia (2002). A Guide to Figurer Animation: For Tv, Games, Multimedia and Web. Focal Press. ISBN0-240-51671-0.
• Magnenat Thalmann, Nadia; Thalmann, Daniel (2004). Handbook of Virtual Humans. Wiley Publishing. ISBN0-470-02316-3.
• Masson, Terrence (1999). CG 101: A Calculator Graphics Industry Reference. Digital Fauxtography Inc. ISBN0-7357-0046-X.
• Means, Sean P. (December 28, 2011). "Pixar founder's Utah-made Hand added to National Moving-picture show Registry". The Table salt Lake Tribune . Retrieved January eight, 2012.
• Paiva, Ana; Prada, Rui; Picard, Rosalind W. (2007). "Facial Expression Synthesis using PAD Emotional Parameters for a Chinese Expressive Avatar". Melancholia Calculating and Intelligent Interaction. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Springer Scientific discipline+Business Media. 4738. doi:ten.1007/978-3-540-74889-two. ISBN978-3-540-74888-5.
• Parent, Rick (2012). Computer Animation: Algorithms and Techniques. Ohio: Elsevier. ISBN978-0-12-415842-ix.
• Pereira, Fernando C. N.; Ebrahimi, Touradj (2002). The MPEG-4 Book. New Jersey: IMSC Press. ISBN0-13-061621-4.
• Parke, Frederic I.; Waters, Keith (2008). Figurer Facial Animation (2nd ed.). Massachusetts: A.One thousand. Peters, Ltd. ISBN978-1-56881-448-3.
• Sito, Tom (2013). Moving Innovation: A History of Estimator Animation. Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN978-0-262-01909-five.

External links [edit]

• Media related to Reckoner animations at Wikimedia Commons

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_animation

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